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Does weather affect mood?

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References to the connection between weather and emotion pervade our culture, whether it’s “sunshine on a cloudy day,” “singing in the rain,” “somewhere over the rainbow,” or “rainy day blues” (1). But does weather really affect mood? Let’s think twice.

Some people experience seasonal affective disorder (SAD), a type of depression that occurs most often during darker months in fall or winter (1). According to Johns Hopkins, chemical changes in the brain may be associated with symptoms of depression when the days are shorter and there is less daylight (5).

Regarding mood and weather, most of the experimental evidence suggests there is no relationship. A study of mood using data collected from participants’ online diaries and weather station data found that daily weather was not associated with mood (6). Another study collected questionnaire data from 97 participants regarding their current mood, activity level, and how much time they spent outside on the day they came to the lab and concluded that mood was not directly related to outside temperature or barometric pressure (7). A study of daily mood ratings and diary entries of 18 students analyzed the prevalence with which diary entries mentioned different types of weather and found no association between weather and mood (8). Another study used data from 14,478 people in a depression-screening program combined with meteorological data found no association between weather and mood (9).

Among the studies that found an association, one studied 497 people using 3 weather indicators from meteorological data and 3 self-reported mood indicators and identified four groups with a modest relationships between weather and mood: summer lovers, unaffected, summer haters, and rain haters (2). Another study that analyzed 38 million posts from 3 million users of a social media site and details regarding the weather during the time of the post in the region of the poster found that sentiments consistent with low mood were associated with weather conditions of high humidity, precipitation, fog, and temperature extremes below 50°F and above 70°F, while high mood was associated with clear skies, high atmospheric pressure, and sunlight temperatures between 50°F and 70°F (3). Because this study relied on time zone and location fields in users’ profiles, it is not certain whether the meteorological data they collected was accurate for all users. A third study that found an association recruited 4,548 people representative of the general population of Japan to complete baseline measures and keep a daily health record regarding physical and mental symptoms for a month and compared those with meteorological data found that self-reported agitation and anxiety were associated with higher temperatures, while depressed mood was associated with lower temperatures (4).

If there is a relationship between mood and weather it seems limited given the small magnitude when there is an association and the inconsistent detection of an association. Our perceived association between weather and mood may relate to cultural expressions and associations, automatic mental associations, or other factors. But it seems that the weather may not cause and perhaps cannot cure low mood.

1) Swaim, E. (2022, August 12). Yes, Weather Can Affect Mood and Energy- and So Can Climate Change. Healthline. https://www.healthline.com/health/mental-health/weather-and-mood#risk-factors

2) Klimstra, T. A., Frijns, T., Keijsers, L., Denissen, J. J., Raaijmakers, Q. A., van Aken, M. A., Koot, H. M., van Lier, P. A., & Meeus, W. H. (2011). Come rain or come shine: individual differences in how weather affects mood. Emotion (Washington, D.C.), 11(6), 1495–1499. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024649

3) Gilette, H. (2024, April 26). Weather Can Affect Your Mood- but How? PsychCentral. https://ojs.aaai.org/index.php/ICWSM/article/view/14451/14300

4) Lee, M., Ohde, S., Urayama, K. Y., Takahashi, O., & Fukui, T. (2018). Weather and Health Symptoms. International journal of environmental research and public health, 15(8), 1670. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15081670

5) Johns Hopkins. (n.d.). Seasonal Affective Disorder. https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/seasonal-affective-disorder#:~:text=Seasonal%20affective%20disorder%20(SAD)%20is,antidepressants%20can%20help%20treat%20SAD.

6) Denissen, Jaap J A et al. “The effects of weather on daily mood: a multilevel approach.” Emotion (Washington, D.C.) vol. 8,5 (2008): 662-7. doi:10.1037/a0013497

7) Keller, M. C., Fredrickson, B. L., Ybarra, O., Côté, S., Johnson, K., Mikels, J., Conway, A., & Wager, T. (2005). A Warm Heart and a Clear Head: The Contingent Effects of Weather on Mood and Cognition. Psychological Science, 16(9), 724–731. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2005.01602.x

8) Clark, L. A., & Watson, D. (1988). Mood and the mundane: Relations between daily life events and self-reported mood. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54(2), 296–308. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.54.2.296

9) Huibers, Marcus J H et al. “Does the weather make us sad? Meteorological determinants of mood and depression in the general population.” Psychiatry research vol. 180,2-3 (2010): 143-6. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2009.09.016

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Is carbonated water as healthy as regular water?

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Is carbonated water as good for you as regular water? - National | Globalnews.ca

IMG via Global News 

Some say that carbonation in water may limit hydration, reduce gastrointestinal symptoms, and increase satiety. But let’s think twice about those claims.   

Regarding hydration, a randomized trial found no difference in urine volume after consumption of still water compared to sparkling water (1).  

Regarding gastrointestinal health, a small (21 subjects) double-blind randomized trial found fewer symptoms of indigestion with carbonated water compared to tap water (2). Another double-blind study of 40 elderly people found fewer symptoms of constipation among people who consumed carbonated water compared to those who drank still water (3). One question about both of these studies is how blinding was accomplished, since subjects can sense carbonation. The small number of study subjects decreases confidence in each experiment.  

It is also speculated that carbonated water can improve satiety, or sense of fullness. Two very small uncontrolled studies reported that people felt satiated after drinking carbonated water (4,5). But that might be the case for still water as well. There is also no good evidence that sparkling water can cause gas and bloating (6) and no evidence that it erodes tooth enamel, even though these symptoms have been reported anecdotally (7).  

While experimental evidence from randomized controlled trials is required to determine the relative health benefits of still and sparkling water, it is a good option for hydration, particularly compared to sugary drinks.  

References:

  1. Maughan RJ, Watson P, Cordery PA, et al. A randomized trial to assess the potential of different beverages to affect hydration status: development of a beverage hydration index. Am J Clin Nutr. 2016;103(3):717-723. doi:10.3945/ajcn.115.114769 
  2. Cuomo R, Grasso R, Sarnelli G, et al. Effects of carbonated water on functional dyspepsia and constipation. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2002;14(9):991-999. doi:10.1097/00042737-200209000-00010 
  3. Mun JH, Jun SS. J Korean Acad Nurs. 2011;41(2):269-275. doi:10.4040/jkan.2011.41.2.269 
  4. Suzuki M, Mura E, Taniguchi A, Moritani T, Nagai N. Oral Carbonation Attenuates Feeling of Hunger and Gastric Myoelectrical Activity in Young Women. J Nutr Sci Vitaminol (Tokyo). 2017;63(3):186-192. doi:10.3177/jnsv.63.186 
  5. Wakisaka S, Nagai H, Mura E, Matsumoto T, Moritani T, Nagai N. The effects of carbonated water upon gastric and cardiac activities and fullness in healthy young women. J Nutr Sci Vitaminol (Tokyo). 2012;58(5):333-338. doi:10.3177/jnsv.58.333 
  6. Welstead L, Schuchmann C. Is sparkling water good for you? What about hard water? University of Chicago Medicine. 10 May 2023. 
  7. Parry J, Shaw L, Arnaud MJ, Smith AJ. Investigation of mineral waters and soft drinks in relation to dental erosion. J Oral Rehabil. 2001;28(8):766-772. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2842.2001.00795.x 
  8. https://globalnews.ca/news/4286475/is-carbonated-water-good-for-you/

 

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Does birth control cause infertility?

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Birth Control

IMG via MedlinePlus

Women take birth control for a multitude of reasons, from preventing pregnancy to regulating the menstrual cycle and reducing acne. Taken correctly, the pill can prevent 99% of pregnancies. This has made birth control a staple for generations of women. However, some women may wonder, What happens if I stop taking the pill? One misconception about the pill is that taken for years, it can reduce the ability to have children. The possibility of future infertility would deter many women from considering birth control pills. So, let’s think twice about it.  

The combination pill works by supplying two hormones, estrogen and progesterone, that work together to stop the ovaries from releasing an egg each month during menstruation. Other pills provide only progesterone; progestin-only pills prevent pregnancy primarily by thickening the cervical mucus. When you stop taking the pill, the hormones it supplies leave your system in a matter of days, and your body reverts to its natural cycle. Additionally, your body begins to produce estrogen and progesterone again. Therefore, barring underlying health issues, women can become pregnant right away after stopping the pill. 

There are several reasons behind the misconception that birth control causes infertility. One is that taking birth control can conceal symptoms of conditions associated with infertility, such as endometriosis, PCOS, and uterine fibroids. Birth control is sometimes used to manage these conditions, so stopping birth control might mistakenly associated with infertility. Another reason for this misconception might be that historically, the side effects of the pill were not well-researched or disclosed to users, so it was not clear whether infertility was a risk. Women often felt dismissed by clinicians and pharmaceutical companies when they experienced side effects of the pill, even for conditions as serious as blood clots and strokes. In the 1960s, despite reports of deaths related to the pill, the FDA maintained that the pill was safe. Additionally, drug companies failed to inform healthcare providers of the pill’s more severe side effects. Since then, the dosage of hormones provided by the pill was adjusted to improve its safety, but mistrust of the pill persists and worries about infertility have continued to the present day.  

However, there is good evidence that birth control users need not worry about their fertility. A 2018 review of twenty-two birth control studies including over 14,000 women showed that 83% of women became pregnant within 12 months of discontinuing contraception. Furthermore, a 2013 study of 3,727 women found that although birth control use was associated with a short delay before conception, overall fertility was not impacted. Additionally, longer-term use of the pill was associated with higher fertility compared to short-term use (less than 2 years). Therefore, even long-term users of the pill should not be concerned. Overall, the evidence suggests that worries about infertility should not stop women from taking the pill.  

Links:

https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/drugs/3977-birth-control-the-pill#:~:text=Birth%20control%20pills%20are%20a,improve%20acne%20and%20treat%20endometriosis. 

https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/drugs/3977-birth-control-the-pill 

https://health.clevelandclinic.org/can-birth-control-make-you-infertile/ 

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6055351/ 

https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/birth-control/in-depth/birth-control-pill/art-20045136#:~:text=The%20pill%20prevents%20your%20body,you%20stop%20taking%20the%20pill. 

https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/birth-control/in-depth/best-birth-control-pill/art-20044807#:~:text=How%20do%20the%20different%20birth,sperm%20from%20joining%20the%20egg. 

https://health.clevelandclinic.org/6-things-that-can-happen-when-you-stop-taking-the-pill/ 

https://cham.org/HealthwiseArticle.aspx?id=te8132#:~:text=You%20can%20get%20pregnant%20right,months%20after%20stopping%20the%20pill. 

https://www.healthline.com/health/birth-control/can-birth-control-cause-infertility#misconceptions 

https://www.acog.org/womens-health/faqs/progestin-only-hormonal-birth-control-pill-and-injection#:~:text=It%20stops%20ovulation.,uterus%20and%20fertilize%20an%20egg. 

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0277953621005797#bib115 

https://medlineplus.gov/birthcontrol.html